The realm of philosophy encompasses a wide array of subjects, from the exploration of knowledge, art, language, and the very essence of existence to the contemplation of moral, ethical, and political quandaries. Derived from the Greek term "philosophia," which literally translates as the "love of wisdom," philosophers have engaged in countless debates and pondered profound questions throughout history. Yet, several pivotal philosophical dilemmas endure, defying resolution and likely persisting as enduring enigmas. These encompass enduring conundrums such as Descartes' inquiries into knowledge and individuality and Aristotle's profound analysis of life, death, and more. What quandaries would you include on your own list of these enduring philosophical mysteries?
Addressing the challenge of skepticism, which questions our capacity to know anything, is a central concern in the field of epistemology, the study of knowledge. Prominent discussions on skepticism often draw from the works of René Descartes and David Hume. Additionally, Sextus Empiricus' Outlines of Pyrrhonism presents a more general skeptical argument, suggesting that we should withhold judgment on matters of fact because opposing judgments can be reasoned for in parallel. The verb "know" is frequently used in English, encompassing not only skills and acquaintances but also claims of knowledge. Skepticism raises the concern that if it were true, it would necessitate a significant overhaul of our thought and language.
It appears logical to assert that the cessation of life or existence marks the moment when a creature undergoes death. Yet, comprehending death necessitates a prior understanding of its connection to life and the continuity of living entities. This realm of philosophical inquiry intersects with the theory of personal identity, although consensus remains elusive on the essence of being alive. According to Aristotle, something possesses the attribute of being "alive" if it exhibits any typical traits of living entities: nutrition, appetite or desire, growth, reproduction, perception, motion, and thought. However, it is conceivable that non-living mechanisms could perform many of these functions. Regarding our persistence over time, certain philosophers propose that our enduring state is partly shaped by our individual attitudes, potentially allowing for posthumous survival.
The question of free will emerges when humans attain a level of self-awareness regarding how profoundly the world can influence their actions, often unbeknownst to them. Throughout the history of ideas, concepts like "determinism" or "necessity" have emerged as a sign of this heightened awareness. Various forms of determinism, whether fatalist, theological, physical, scientific, psychological, social, or logical, have threatened free will, but they share a common thread that explains their significance and endurance. According to this fundamental idea, an event is determined when certain conditions, such as fate's decrees, divine preordination, or the laws of nature, can influence the outcome—essentially, "if these determining conditions jointly occur, the determined event must follow." While hotly debated, there remains no universally accepted philosophical consensus refuting these concerns.
The relationship between 'my' mind and body has been a subject of philosophical inquiry. Various philosophers have contemplated the dualistic perspective concerning the connection between the mind and the body. Descartes, for instance, attributed mental attributes to spiritual substances that were considered logically independent of the physical realm but associated with specific bodies. In contrast, thinkers like Thomas Hobbes acknowledged a duality of properties, assigning both mental and physical attributes to human bodies. Some philosophers introduced the concept of an "ultimate category of persons," distinguishing them from physical objects by virtue of possessing both mental and physical attributes. If dualism is deemed the most plausible explanation, many argue that a more defensible form would involve acknowledging a duality of properties. However, the challenge of demonstrating how these aspects combine to define a single subject remains unsolved.
In Shakespeare's "The Merchant of Venice," Shylock's insistence on a pound of flesh in the name of justice poses a formidable challenge, only resolved by Portia's clever intervention. This underscores the enduring complexity of justice, for which there remains no universally accepted theory. In our increasingly interconnected world, especially in the face of contemporary humanitarian crises, philosophical inquiries into justice have gained prominence. These discussions raise fundamental questions: Is justice an exclusive concern within the boundaries of a nation, or does it extend to all humanity based solely on their shared humanity? The exploration of "global justice" differs from "international justice" as it transcends state-centric perspectives, delving into the moral legitimacy of states themselves and considering alternative pathways.
